Beetle: A Bilingual Model Suite for Modelling Second-Language Processing
Bilingual language models (LMs) offer a controlled setting for studying how training conditions shape second-language (L2) behaviour, but prior work typically varies exposure structure, scale, and architecture at once, making it difficult to attribute effects to any single factor. We introduce Beetle, a controlled language model pretraining framework in which tokeniser, target language, training budget, and exposure structure are each independently manipulable, enabling systematic and comparable experimentation of training conditions. Using Beetle, we train and release 285 bilingual and 45 monolingual open-source LMs with rich checkpoints across a range of exposure schedules, data scales ...
| Authors | Suchir Salhan, Catherine Arnett, James Michaelov et al. |
|---|---|
| Primary category | cs.CL |
| Published | 18 September 2026 |
| Last updated at source | 18 September 2026 |
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